Understanding Lung Anatomy, Function, and Breathing: Common Conditions, Prevention, and How Physiotherapy Can Help
▫️Written by John Keller
✅ Reviewed by Dr. Jenny Hynes on November 21, 2024
Breathing is one of the most fundamental processes of life, yet we often take it for granted—until we face difficulties with it. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), respiratory diseases are responsible for a significant global health burden, with conditions like Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) being among the top causes of death.
This article explores the essentials of lung health, shedding light on how the lungs function, common conditions that can affect them, and the importance of prevention and early intervention. We’ll also discuss how physiotherapy can play a critical role in improving breathing and managing lung-related challenges, helping you live a healthier, more fulfilling life.
Understanding the lungs
The lungs are remarkable organs that work tirelessly to supply oxygen to the body and remove carbon dioxide, a waste product. By understanding how the lungs function, we can appreciate their role in maintaining overall health and recognize when something goes wrong.
Lung anatomy
The lungs are composed of several essential structures:
Bronchi and Bronchioles: Airways that carry air into and out of the lungs.
Alveoli: Tiny air sacs where oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged.
Diaphragm and Intercostal Muscles: Muscles that facilitate breathing by expanding and contracting the lungs.
Together, these structures create an intricate system that allows us to breathe, speak, and sustain life.
Lung function and breathing process
Breathing involves two key processes:
Inhalation: Air enters the lungs, and oxygen passes into the bloodstream.
Exhalation: Carbon dioxide is expelled from the body.
Beyond gas exchange, the lungs play a critical role in maintaining blood pH by regulating carbon dioxide levels. Healthy lung function is essential for physical activities like running and swimming and for simple daily tasks like climbing stairs.
Understanding the lungs’ structure and function underscores their importance in our daily lives. By learning about their role, we can better protect and maintain their health.
Common lung conditions
Millions of people worldwide experience lung-related conditions that affect their ability to breathe and their overall quality of life. Here, we delve into some of the most common lung conditions, their causes, symptoms, and impacts.
1. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
Prevalence: Affects over 300 million people globally (Vos et al., 2020).
Causes: Primarily caused by smoking, but exposure to pollutants and genetic factors also contribute.
Symptoms: Chronic cough, shortness of breath, and wheezing.
Impact: Limits mobility and increases the risk of infections.
2. Asthma
Prevalence: Common in children and adults; affects over 250 million people worldwide.
Causes: Triggers include allergens, exercise, and cold air.
Symptoms: Wheezing, breathlessness, and chest tightness.
Impact: Episodes can disrupt daily life and require careful management.
3. Bronchiectasis
Prevalence: Often underdiagnosed but impacts thousands globally.
Causes: Recurrent infections or immune conditions damage the bronchial walls.
Symptoms: Persistent cough and frequent infections.
Impact: Reduces lung efficiency and can lead to hospitalizations.
4. Cystic Fibrosis
Prevalence: Affects approximately 70,000 people worldwide.
Causes: Genetic mutations lead to thick mucus production.
Symptoms: Chronic lung infections and digestive issues.
Impact: Frequent hospital visits and reduced life expectancy.
5. Pulmonary Hypertension
Prevalence: Rare but serious condition.
Causes: Heart disease, autoimmune conditions, or genetics.
Symptoms: Fatigue, chest pain, and swelling in the legs.
Impact: Can lead to heart failure if untreated.
Understanding these conditions emphasizes the need for awareness and early detection. By recognizing symptoms and risk factors, individuals can seek timely care and improve their quality of life.
Prevention of lung problems
While some lung conditions are unavoidable due to genetic factors, many are preventable. Adopting healthy habits and minimizing exposure to risks can significantly reduce the likelihood of developing lung problems.
Strategies for Prevention
Lifestyle Changes:
Quit smoking: Smoking is the leading preventable cause of lung disease (Forey et al., 2011).
Exercise regularly: Activities like walking or swimming improve lung capacity.
Eat a healthy diet: Nutrients like antioxidants support lung health.
Environmental Awareness:
Reduce exposure to air pollutants: Use air purifiers and avoid heavily polluted areas.
Protective equipment: High-risk occupations (e.g., mining, construction) require proper safety gear.
Vaccination:
Flu and pneumonia vaccines protect against infections that can damage the lungs.
Regular Check-ups:
Routine screenings help detect lung problems early, leading to better outcomes.
Preventing lung problems requires proactive efforts and lifestyle adjustments. By prioritizing these strategies, you can safeguard your lung health and overall well-being.
Diagnosis of lung conditions
Accurate diagnosis is the foundation of effective treatment for lung conditions. With advancements in medical technology, identifying lung problems early has become more accessible, improving outcomes and quality of life for many patients. Diagnostic methods range from basic physical examinations to sophisticated imaging and functional tests that assess lung capacity and performance.
Common diagnostic tests
Spirometry
What It Is: Spirometry is a non-invasive test that measures how much air you can inhale and exhale and how quickly you can empty your lungs.
How It Works: You’ll breathe into a mouthpiece connected to a device called a spirometer, which records airflow and lung volumes.
Purpose: This test is commonly used to diagnose conditions like asthma, Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD), and other obstructive lung diseases.
Benefits: Provides immediate results to assess lung function and disease severity.
Chest X-ray
What It Is: A quick imaging technique that creates a picture of the lungs, heart, and chest structures.
How It Works: X-rays pass through the chest, producing an image that shows abnormalities such as infections, fluid buildup, or tumors.
Purpose: Useful for diagnosing pneumonia, bronchitis, tuberculosis, and lung cancer.
Benefits: It is fast, widely available, and cost-effective.
CT Scan (Computed Tomography)
What It Is: A more detailed imaging test that provides cross-sectional views of the lungs and chest cavity.
How It Works: Patients lie on a table that slides into a scanner; the machine takes detailed images using X-rays from multiple angles.
Purpose: Ideal for detecting small tumors, blood clots, or interstitial lung diseases like fibrosis.
Benefits: Offers a clearer, more comprehensive view than a standard X-ray.
Blood Tests
What It Is: Bloodwork to assess oxygen and carbon dioxide levels or detect markers of infection or inflammation.
How It Works: A small blood sample is taken, often from an artery (arterial blood gas test) or a vein.
Purpose: Helps identify oxygen deprivation, infections, or autoimmune markers related to lung diseases.
Benefits: Provides a systemic view of how lung function affects the body.
Importance of early detection
Early detection of lung conditions is critical to preventing disease progression and improving treatment outcomes. For example:
Slowing Disease Progression: Early diagnosis of COPD can help prevent irreversible lung damage by initiating treatment and lifestyle changes.
Improving Survival Rates: Detecting lung cancer early increases the likelihood of successful treatment, as the cancer may still be localized.
Better Symptom Management: Identifying conditions like asthma early allows for timely interventions, preventing severe episodes and improving daily life.
Routine screenings, especially for individuals at high risk (e.g., smokers, those with a family history of lung disease), are essential to detect issues before symptoms become severe.
What to expect during lung function tests
For most lung diagnostic tests, the procedures are straightforward and minimally invasive. Here’s what you can expect:
Spirometry: You will sit comfortably and breathe into a device through a sterilized mouthpiece. The test involves multiple attempts to ensure accuracy, such as blowing out air as hard and fast as possible after a deep breath.
Duration: Around 10–15 minutes.
Preparation: Avoid heavy meals or strenuous activity before the test.
Chest X-ray and CT Scan:
X-ray: Typically takes a few minutes. You’ll be asked to stand or lie still while the technician captures the image.
CT Scan: The process is slightly longer (10–30 minutes), and you may be asked to hold your breath for a few seconds during imaging.
Blood Tests:
Arterial Blood Gas (ABG): A small needle is used to draw blood from an artery, usually in the wrist. This test can cause slight discomfort but is brief.
Venous Blood Test: Taken from a vein in the arm with minimal discomfort.
Other Functional Tests:
Some diagnostic procedures, like diffusion capacity testing, may involve breathing in a harmless gas to measure how well your lungs transfer oxygen into the blood.
The diagnosis of lung conditions is a multi-step process designed to uncover the root cause of symptoms and guide treatment effectively. From basic spirometry to advanced CT imaging, these tools empower healthcare professionals to detect lung issues early, often before they become life-threatening. By understanding what to expect during these tests, patients can approach their diagnostic journey with confidence and a sense of preparedness.
Treatment options for lung conditions
Treating lung conditions involves a tailored approach depending on the type and severity of the condition. Traditional treatments focus on relieving symptoms, improving quality of life, and slowing disease progression. With advancements in medical science, emerging treatments and clinical trials are offering new hope to patients by targeting the underlying causes of lung conditions more effectively.
Medications
Medications are often the first line of treatment for many lung conditions. They help manage symptoms, reduce inflammation, and combat infections. Key classes of medications include:
Bronchodilators
Function: Relax the muscles around the airways, making it easier to breathe.
Common Uses: Frequently prescribed for asthma and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD).
Types: Short-acting bronchodilators (for quick relief) and long-acting bronchodilators (for maintenance therapy).
Example: Albuterol (short-acting) and Salmeterol (long-acting).
Inhaled Corticosteroids
Function: Reduce airway inflammation, preventing flare-ups.
Common Uses: Asthma and severe COPD.
Benefits: Deliver medication directly to the lungs, minimizing systemic side effects compared to oral steroids.
Example: Budesonide and Fluticasone.
Antibiotics
Function: Combat bacterial infections that can worsen lung conditions.
Common Uses: Pneumonia, bronchitis, or exacerbations of conditions like bronchiectasis and COPD.
Importance: Treating infections promptly prevents complications and further lung damage.
Oxygen Therapy
When It’s Needed and How It Helps
Oxygen therapy is prescribed for patients with conditions like advanced COPD, interstitial lung disease, or pulmonary fibrosis when blood oxygen levels are consistently low.
How It Works: Supplies supplemental oxygen via nasal prongs, masks, or portable oxygen concentrators.
Benefits: Improves oxygen delivery to tissues, reduces breathlessness, and enhances energy levels.
Long-Term Use: Helps prolong life in severe cases of COPD or other chronic lung diseases by preventing complications like heart strain due to low oxygen levels.
Pulmonary Rehabilitation
Components of a Comprehensive Program
Pulmonary rehabilitation is a multidisciplinary program aimed at improving the overall well-being of individuals with chronic lung conditions. Key components include:
Exercise Training
Focuses on improving endurance, strength, and overall fitness.
Includes tailored exercises like walking, cycling, and strength training.
Education
Teaches patients about lung disease management, proper use of medications, and recognizing early signs of exacerbations.
Breathing Techniques
Methods such as diaphragmatic breathing and pursed-lip breathing to optimize airflow and reduce breathlessness.
Psychosocial Support
Includes counseling and support groups to address anxiety or depression often associated with chronic lung conditions.
Nutritional Advice
Tailored dietary plans to maintain energy levels and reduce the risk of malnutrition, which is common in advanced lung diseases.
Surgery
Types of Lung Surgeries and Their Indications
Surgical interventions are reserved for severe or specific lung conditions where other treatments are insufficient. Common types include:
Lung Volume Reduction Surgery (LVRS)
Indication: Advanced emphysema.
Purpose: Removes damaged lung tissue, allowing healthier portions of the lung to expand and function more effectively.
Lobectomy
Indication: Lung cancer or localized infections like tuberculosis.
Purpose: Removal of an entire lobe of the lung to eliminate the diseased portion.
Lung Transplantation
Indication: End-stage lung diseases like pulmonary fibrosis or cystic fibrosis.
Purpose: Replaces damaged lungs with healthy donor lungs, significantly improving survival and quality of life.
Thoracentesis
Indication: Pleural effusion (fluid around the lungs).
Purpose: Drains fluid to relieve pressure and improve breathing.
Emerging treatments and clinical trials
With ongoing research, new treatments are transforming the management of lung conditions (Spruit et al., 2013) :
Biologic Therapies
What They Are: Targeted therapies that act on specific pathways in inflammatory or immune responses.
Examples: Monoclonal antibodies like Benralizumab and Dupilumab for severe asthma.
Benefits: Fewer side effects compared to broad-spectrum treatments like corticosteroids.
Gene Therapy
Focus: Targets genetic mutations in conditions like cystic fibrosis.
Example: Experimental therapies aim to correct defective CFTR genes to restore normal lung function.
Regenerative Medicine
Stem Cell Therapy: Researchers are exploring the use of stem cells to repair damaged lung tissue in conditions like pulmonary fibrosis.
Benefits: Promotes healing and may reverse some effects of chronic lung diseases.
Inhaled Antibiotics and Antivirals
What They Are: Direct delivery of medications via inhalation for conditions like bronchiectasis or viral pneumonia.
Examples: Aerosolized antibiotics like Tobramycin for cystic fibrosis.
Immunotherapy for Lung Cancer
Mechanism: Boosts the immune system to target and destroy cancer cells.
Examples: Drugs like Pembrolizumab and Nivolumab have shown promise in advanced lung cancer.
Targeted Pulmonary Hypertension Drugs
Focus: New medications that relax and dilate blood vessels in the lungs.
Example: Prostacyclin analogs like Selexipag.
Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Diagnosis and Monitoring
Application: AI tools are being integrated to monitor lung function and predict disease progression, enabling earlier interventions.
Treatment for lung conditions has advanced significantly, providing patients with more effective and personalized options. From traditional medications and oxygen therapy to groundbreaking innovations like biologic therapies and regenerative medicine, the future of lung health looks promising. While emerging treatments offer hope, they emphasize the importance of ongoing research and clinical trials. If you’re managing a lung condition, consult your healthcare provider to explore these options and ensure the best possible care tailored to your needs.
Physiotherapy for lung health
At Keilor Road Physiotherapy, we understand how vital your lungs are to your overall health and well-being. Living with a lung condition can significantly impact your quality of life, but physiotherapy offers effective, evidence-based strategies to help you breathe easier and regain control. Our tailored lung health programs are designed to address individual needs, using proven techniques to improve lung function, reduce symptoms, and enhance overall quality of life.
How physiotherapy helps lung conditions
Physiotherapy plays a crucial role in managing and improving lung health by:
Enhancing lung capacity and function.
Clearing mucus and improving airflow.
Reducing the frequency of infections and hospitalizations.
Supporting better oxygenation of the body, which boosts energy levels and reduces fatigue.
At Keilor Road Physiotherapy, we specialize in creating personalized treatment plans that focus on empowering our patients with the tools and techniques needed to manage their conditions effectively.
Specific techniques used in physiotherapy
Chest Physiotherapy
What It Is: A manual therapy technique involving percussion (tapping) and vibrations to loosen mucus in the lungs.
How It Helps: Assists in clearing mucus build-up, particularly in conditions like cystic fibrosis, bronchiectasis, and chronic bronchitis.
Keilor Road Approach: We combine manual therapy with patient education to maximize mucus clearance, ensuring better breathing and reduced infection risk.
Breathing Exercises
What They Are: Techniques that improve lung efficiency by strengthening respiratory muscles and promoting optimal airflow.
Examples: Diaphragmatic breathing and pursed-lip breathing.
How It Helps: Reduces breathlessness and improves oxygen exchange, especially in COPD and asthma patients.
Keilor Road Approach: Our physiotherapists guide patients in mastering these exercises, helping them integrate them into their daily routines for long-term benefits.
Postural Drainage
What It Is: A technique that uses gravity to drain mucus from specific areas of the lungs.
How It Helps: Particularly effective for conditions with significant mucus build-up, such as bronchiectasis and cystic fibrosis.
Keilor Road Approach: We tailor postural drainage techniques to each patient, teaching them how to perform these exercises at home for greater independence.
Airway Clearance Techniques
What They Are: Methods such as huffing, coughing, and oscillatory devices (e.g., Acapella or Flutter valve) to clear mucus.
How It Helps: Improves airway clearance, reduces infections, and enhances breathing.
Keilor Road Approach: Our clinic integrates cutting-edge devices and hands-on techniques to provide the most effective airway clearance solutions.
Benefits of physiotherapy for different lung conditions
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD): Reduces breathlessness, increases exercise tolerance, and prevents exacerbations.
Asthma: Improves breathing control, reduces reliance on rescue medications, and prevents flare-ups.
Cystic Fibrosis: Enhances mucus clearance and delays lung function decline.
Pulmonary Fibrosis: Boosts energy levels and supports better breathing mechanics.
Bronchiectasis: Reduces infections and promotes better lung hygiene.
Post-Surgical Recovery: Accelerates recovery after thoracic or abdominal surgeries by preventing complications like pneumonia.
Evidence-based effectiveness of physiotherapy treatments
Research consistently supports the role of physiotherapy in managing lung conditions:
Pulmonary Rehabilitation: A cornerstone of COPD management, shown to improve exercise capacity, reduce breathlessness, and enhance quality of life (McCarthy et al., 2015).
Chest Physiotherapy: Proven effective in clearing secretions and preventing infections in conditions like cystic fibrosis (Main et al., 2015).
Breathing Exercises: Demonstrated to improve oxygenation and reduce breathlessness in chronic lung diseases (Holland et al., 2012).
At Keilor Road Physiotherapy, we pride ourselves on using evidence-based practices, ensuring that every intervention we provide is backed by the latest research and clinical guidelines.
Case study: A patient’s journey to better breathing
Patient Profile:
Name: Sarah M.
Condition: Moderate COPD with frequent exacerbations and reduced exercise tolerance.
Symptoms: Persistent breathlessness, fatigue, and difficulty managing daily activities.
Treatment Plan:
Sarah’s physiotherapy plan at Keilor Road included:
Breathing exercises to improve oxygen exchange.
Chest physiotherapy and airway clearance techniques to manage mucus build-up.
A progressive exercise program to increase her fitness and endurance.
Outcomes:
Significant reduction in breathlessness after 8 weeks.
Improved walking endurance from 200 meters to 350 meters during a 6-minute walk test.
Fewer exacerbations and increased confidence in managing her condition.
At Keilor Road Physiotherapy, we believe in empowering our patients to breathe easier and live better. Through personalized treatment plans, expert-guided techniques, and ongoing support, we help individuals manage their lung conditions effectively. Whether you’re struggling with COPD, asthma, or recovering from surgery, our team is here to help you take control of your lung health.
If you’re facing lung-related challenges or want to improve your breathing, contact Keilor Road Physiotherapy today. Let us guide you on your journey to better lung health and a more active, fulfilling life.
Living with lung conditions: Thriving despite challenges
Living with a lung condition can be challenging, but with the right strategies and support, it’s possible to maintain a fulfilling and active life. Coping effectively involves not only managing the physical symptoms but also addressing the emotional and psychological aspects of the condition. At Keilor Road Physiotherapy, we aim to provide comprehensive support to patients and their families, empowering them to face the complexities of lung health with confidence and resilience.
Coping strategies for daily life
Adapting to a lung condition requires lifestyle adjustments and proactive management. Here are key strategies:
Prioritize Energy Conservation
Break tasks into smaller, manageable steps to avoid exhaustion.
Use energy-saving techniques, such as sitting while performing chores and keeping frequently used items within easy reach.
Practice pacing: alternate periods of activity with rest.
Incorporate Breathing Techniques
Use breathing exercises like pursed-lip breathing and diaphragmatic breathing to reduce breathlessness and improve airflow.
Engage in regular sessions of guided breathing with your physiotherapist to optimize lung capacity.
Stay Physically Active
Exercise tailored to your condition, such as walking, light resistance training, or yoga, can improve stamina and reduce symptoms.
Consult your physiotherapist to design a safe, personalized exercise plan.
Monitor Symptoms
Keep a symptom diary to track patterns and identify triggers for exacerbations.
Recognize early warning signs (e.g., increased breathlessness or changes in mucus) and act promptly by contacting your healthcare provider.
Maintain a Healthy Diet
Opt for a balanced diet rich in antioxidants to support lung health.
Avoid foods that may cause bloating, which can make breathing more difficult.
Emotional and psychological aspects
Living with a lung condition often affects mental health, leading to stress, anxiety, or depression. Acknowledging and addressing these feelings is essential for overall well-being.
Emotional Challenges
Anxiety: Breathlessness can trigger anxiety, creating a vicious cycle that worsens symptoms. Learning relaxation techniques can help break this cycle.
Depression: The limitations imposed by a lung condition may lead to feelings of sadness or helplessness. Seeking professional counseling or support can be beneficial.
Building Resilience
Set realistic goals to maintain a sense of achievement.
Practice mindfulness or meditation to reduce stress and stay focused on the present.
Professional Support
Engage with mental health professionals who specialize in chronic illness.
At Keilor Road Physiotherapy, we emphasize holistic care, addressing both physical and emotional aspects of lung health.
Support groups and resources
Joining a support group or accessing reliable resources can significantly improve the experience of living with a lung condition.
Benefits of Support Groups
Provide a sense of community and reduce feelings of isolation.
Share practical advice and experiences with others who understand your journey.
Offer encouragement and motivation to manage your condition.
Where to Find Support
Local Support Groups: Many hospitals and clinics, including Keilor Road Physiotherapy, can connect you with local lung health support networks.
Online Communities: Platforms like the Lung Foundation Australia offer forums, educational resources, and virtual meetups.
Workshops and Events: Participate in educational seminars on lung health to stay informed and empowered.
Tips for caregivers
Caregivers play a critical role in supporting loved ones with lung conditions. Here’s how caregivers can make a meaningful impact while managing their own well-being:
Learn About the Condition
Understanding the nature of the lung condition and its management helps caregivers provide better support.
Attend medical appointments to stay informed about treatment plans and progress.
Encourage Independence
While assistance is important, encourage the patient to maintain as much independence as possible.
Support them in following their physiotherapy exercises and self-management techniques.
Manage Emotional Health
Caregiving can be emotionally taxing. Seek support from counseling services or caregiver support groups.
Take breaks and prioritize self-care to avoid burnout.
Practical Assistance
Help with daily activities like meal preparation, household tasks, or attending medical appointments.
Monitor symptoms and assist in managing medications or oxygen therapy.
Celebrate Progress
Acknowledge and celebrate small milestones, such as improved breathing or completing an exercise program.
Conclusion
Lung health is a cornerstone of overall well-being, enabling us to engage in daily activities, maintain physical fitness, and enjoy life to its fullest. This guide has highlighted the intricate structure and essential functions of the lungs, common conditions that can impair their performance, and the significance of prevention, early diagnosis, and comprehensive treatment. Understanding the signs and symptoms of lung issues is vital to recognizing when professional intervention is needed.
Early detection and intervention are critical in managing lung conditions effectively. Whether it’s a progressive disease like COPD, a genetic condition like cystic fibrosis, or a sudden respiratory infection, acting promptly can prevent further complications and improve long-term outcomes. Regular check-ups, lung function tests, and adopting a proactive approach to health are essential for mitigating the risks associated with lung diseases.
Physiotherapy offers transformative benefits for those living with lung conditions. Techniques such as chest physiotherapy, breathing exercises, and airway clearance methods can significantly improve lung capacity, reduce symptoms, and enhance quality of life. At Keilor Road Physiotherapy, our evidence-based, patient-centered care aims to empower individuals with the tools and strategies needed to breathe easier and regain control of their lives.
If you or a loved one are experiencing lung-related challenges—be it breathlessness, persistent coughing, or difficulty managing a diagnosed condition—don’t wait. Consult with the expert physiotherapists at Keilor Road Physiotherapy. Our team specializes in creating personalized treatment plans tailored to your specific needs. Let us help you take the first step toward improved lung health and a better quality of life.
Contact Keilor Road Physiotherapy today and discover how we can help you breathe easier, live better, and thrive!
References:
Holland, A. E., Hill, C. J., Jones, A. Y., & McDonald, C. F. (2012). Breathing exercises for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 10(2), CD008250. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD008250.pub2
Forey, B. A., Thornton, A. J., & Lee, P. N. (2011). Systematic review with meta-analysis of the epidemiological evidence relating smoking to COPD, chronic bronchitis and emphysema. BMC pulmonary medicine, 11, 36. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2466-11-36
Main, E., Grillo, L., & Rand, S. (2015). Airway clearance strategies in cystic fibrosis and non-cystic fibrosis bronchiectasis. Seminars in respiratory and critical care medicine, 36(2), 251–266. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0035-1546820
McCarthy, B., Casey, D., Devane, D., Murphy, K., Murphy, E., & Lacasse, Y. (2015). Pulmonary rehabilitation for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2(2), CD003793. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD003793.pub3
Spruit, M. A., Singh, S. J., Garvey, C., ZuWallack, R., Nici, L., Rochester, C., ... & Wouters, E. F. (2013). An official American Thoracic Society/European Respiratory Society statement: Key concepts and advances in pulmonary rehabilitation. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 188(8), e13-e64. https://doi.org/10.1164/rccm.201309-1634ST
Vos, T., Lim, S. S., Abbafati, C., Abbas, K. M., Abbasi, M., Abbasifard, M., ... & Murray, C. J. L. (2020). Global burden of 369 diseases and injuries in 204 countries and territories, 1990–2019: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. The Lancet, 396(10258), 1204-1222. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30925-9
Article by
John Keller
Clinical Director | Sports & Musculoskeletal Physiotherapist
John graduated as a Physiotherapist from the Auckland University of Technology with the John Morris memorial prize for outstanding clinical practise in 2003. John has since completed Post Graduate Diplomas in both Sports Medicine and Musculoskeletal Physiotherapy with distinction, also collecting the Searle Shield for excellence in Musculoskeletal Physiotherapy.
Reviewed by
Dr. Jenny Hynes FACP
Clinical Director | Specialist Musculoskeletal Physiotherapist
Jenny sat extensive examinations to be inducted as a fellow into the Australian College of Physiotherapy in 2009 and gain the title of Specialist Musculoskeletal Physiotherapist, one of only a few physiotherapists in the state to have done so.