Brain Injury: Causes, Types, Symptoms and Treatment Options
▫️Written by John Keller
✅ Reviewed by Dr. Jenny Hynes on September 16, 2024
A brain injury is damage to the brain resulting from external force, trauma, or internal conditions such as stroke or infection. This can impair cognitive, physical, and emotional functions. Brain injuries can be classified as primary or secondary. Primary injuries are caused directly by the initial impact or trauma, while secondary injuries occur as a consequence of physiological responses to the primary injury (Kraus & McArthur, 2008).
Statistics on prevalence and impact
Brain injuries are a significant public health issue. The World Health Organization estimates that traumatic brain injury (TBI) affects approximately 69 million people globally each year (Maas et al., 2017). In the United States alone, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reports that TBIs contribute to about 30% of all injury-related deaths (CDC, 2021). The impact of these injuries can be profound, affecting an individual's ability to perform daily activities and diminishing quality of life.
Brief overview of the brain's Importance
The brain is the central organ of the nervous system, crucial for regulating bodily functions, cognition, and emotional responses. It controls everything from movement and sensory perception to reasoning and memory. Damage to this vital organ can thus have widespread and serious consequences (Ozga et al., 2018).
Purpose of the article
This article aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of brain injuries, including their definitions, causes, and effects. By exploring both primary and secondary injuries, the article seeks to shed light on the severity of brain injuries and their impact on individuals.
What is a brain injury?
A brain injury refers to any damage to the brain that disrupts normal brain function. It encompasses various types of injuries including concussions, contusions, and diffuse axonal injuries. The damage can be caused by external trauma (e.g., falls, car accidents) or internal factors (e.g., stroke, infections).
Primary brain injuries
Primary brain injuries occur at the moment of impact and include immediate damage to the brain tissue. Examples are contusions (bruises on the brain) and lacerations (tears in the brain tissue). These injuries result from the initial force applied to the head and are often evident on imaging studies (Adams & Victor, 2009).
Secondary brain injuries
Secondary brain injuries result from physiological changes following the primary injury. These can include swelling, increased intracranial pressure, and reduced blood flow, which exacerbate the initial damage and complicate recovery (Chesnut, R.M. 2007).
Severity scale
Brain injuries are often categorized based on their severity:
Mild: Concussions or mild contusions, usually resulting in temporary symptoms such as headaches or confusion.
Moderate: More significant damage requiring medical intervention, with potential for lasting impairments.
Severe: Extensive damage that can lead to long-term disabilities or death, often necessitating intensive medical treatment (GOS, 2004).
Types of brain injuries
Traumatic brain injury (TBI)
Closed head injuries: Occur without an open wound, such as concussions and contusions. The brain is damaged due to impact or rapid acceleration/deceleration (Ozga et al., 2018).
Penetrating head injuries: Involve an object piercing the skull and damaging brain tissue, such as gunshot wounds or stabbings (Adams & Victor, 2009).
Acquired brain injury (ABI)
Non-traumatic causes: Result from internal factors, including stroke, infections, tumors, and hypoxia/anoxia (Chesnut, R.M. 2007).
Specific tpes
Concussion: A mild TBI causing temporary confusion and symptoms such as headache and dizziness. Recovery typically occurs within a few weeks (McCrory et al., 2017).
Contusion: Brain bruising resulting from impact, often causing localized damage and bleeding (Adams & Victor, 2009).
Diffuse axonal injury: Widespread damage to nerve fibers, commonly from severe acceleration-deceleration forces, leading to long-term impairment (Ozga et al., 2018).
Coup-contrecoup injury: Damage occurring at both the impact site (coup) and the opposite side of the brain (contrecoup) (Chesnut, R.M. 2007).
Subdural and epidural hematomas: Blood collection in the brain or between the brain and skull, causing pressure that can lead to severe damage if untreated (GOS, 2004).
Causes of brain injuries
Trauma
Falls: Leading cause of TBI in elderly individuals and young children (CDC, 2021).
Motor vehicle accidents: Significant source of brain injuries, often involving high-impact forces (Maas et al., 2017).
Sports injuries: Concussions and other injuries resulting from contact sports (McCrory et al., 2017).
Violent assaults: Includes physical attacks leading to brain injury (Kraus & McArthur, 2008).
Stroke
Ischemic stroke: Blockage of blood flow to the brain, causing damage (Majoie, 2018).
Hemorrhagic stroke: Bleeding in the brain from ruptured vessels (Majoie, 2018).
Hypoxia/Anoxia
Near-drowning: Oxygen deprivation from submersion (Ozga et al., 2018).
Cardiac arrest: Lack of blood flow to the brain due to heart failure (Chesnut, R.M. 2007).
Severe asthma attacks: Can lead to oxygen deprivation and brain damage (Ozga et al., 2018).
Infections
Meningitis: Infection of the protective membranes covering the brain (CDC, 2021).
Encephalitis: Inflammation of the brain caused by infection (CDC, 2021).
Tumors
Primary brain tumors: Originating in the brain (Adams & Victor, 2009).
Metastatic tumors: Cancer spread from other body parts to the brain (Chesnut, R.M. 2007).
Signs and symptoms of brain injury
Physical symptoms
Headache: Common following injury (McCrory et al., 2017).
Dizziness: Often associated with balance issues (Ozga et al., 2018).
Fatigue: Persistent tiredness can follow brain injury (Adams & Victor, 2009).
Sleep disturbances: Problems with sleep patterns are common (Chesnut, R.M. 2007).
Sensory changes: Alterations in vision, hearing, or touch (Ozga et al., 2018).
Cognitive symptoms
Memory problems: Difficulty with short-term or long-term memory (McCrory et al., 2017).
Attention and concentration difficulties: Challenges in focusing (Ozga et al., 2018).
Slowed processing speed: Reduced speed in thinking and reaction times (Adams & Victor, 2009).
Executive function impairments: Issues with planning, decision-making, and problem-solving (Chesnut, R.M. 2007).
Emotional and behavioral changes
Mood swings: Rapid and unpredictable changes in mood (McCrory et al., 2017).
Irritability: Increased sensitivity to frustration (Adams & Victor, 2009).
Depression and anxiety: Mental health conditions commonly seen post-injury (Chesnut, R.M. 2007).
Personality changes: Alterations in behavior and personality (Ozga et al., 2018).
Diagnosis of brain injuries
Initial assessment
Glasgow coma scale: Measures consciousness level and severity of injury (Teasdale & Jennett, 1974).
Physical examination: Includes checking vital signs and neurological status (Adams & Victor, 2009).
Neurological examination
Reflexes, coordination, and sensory tests: Assess brain function and damage (Teasdale & Jennett, 1974).
Imaging techniques
CT scans: Provide quick assessment of acute injuries (Majoie, 2018).
MRI: Offers detailed imaging of brain structure (Majoie, 2018).
fMRI and PET scans: Assess brain function and activity (Ozga et al., 2018).
Cognitive and neuropsychological tests
Memory and attentiona ssessments: Evaluate cognitive impact (McCrory et al., 2017).
Language and problem-solving evaluations: Test executive function and language skills (Adams & Victor, 2009).
Prevention Strategies for brain injuries
Safety measures
Proper helmet use: Essential for preventing head injuries in sports and biking (McCrory et al., 2017).
Seatbelt and airbag importance: Reduces the risk of injury in vehicle accidents (CDC, 2021).
Childproofing homes: Minimizes fall risk in young children (Kraus & McArthur, 2008).
Fall prevention
Home modifications for elderly: Includes safety rails and non-slip surfaces (Ozga et al., 2018).
Balance training: Improves stability and reduces fall risk (Adams & Victor, 2009).
Sports safety
Proper techniques and equipment: Prevents sports-related injuries (McCrory et al., 2017).
Concussion protocols: Ensures safe return to play following head injuries (CDC, 2021).
Stroke prevention
Managing risk factors: Includes controlling hypertension and diabetes (Majoie, 2018).
Lifestyle modifications: Encourages healthy living to reduce stroke risk (Majoie, 2018).
Treatment options for brain injuries
Immediate medical interventions
Emergency Care and Stabilization: Includes initial treatment and monitoring (Chesnut, R.M. 2007).
Monitoring Intracranial Pressure: Essential to manage severe injuries (Adams & Victor, 2009).
Rehabilitation therapies
Physiotherapy: Aids in physical recovery and motor function (Ozga et al., 2018).
Occupational therapy: Helps regain daily living skills (Adams & Victor, 2009).
Speech and language therapy: Addresses communication and swallowing difficulties (McCrory et al., 2017).
Cognitive rehabilitation: Focuses on improving cognitive functions (Chesnut, R.M. 2007).
Medications
Pain management: Relieves headache and other pain (McCrory et al., 2017).
Anti-seizure drugs: Prevents seizures following brain injury (Adams & Victor, 2009).
Mood stabilizers: Manages emotional changes (Chesnut, R.M. 2007).
Surgical interventions
Removing blood clots: Addresses hematomas (Ozga et al., 2018).
Repairing skull fractures: Essential for structural damage (Adams & Victor, 2009).
Relieving pressure: Reduces intracranial pressure to prevent further damage (GOS, 2004).
Physiotherapy's effectiveness in treating brain injury
Role of ohysiotherapy in brain injury rehabilitation
Physiotherapy plays a crucial role in the rehabilitation of brain injury patients by focusing on several key areas:
Improving motor function: Physiotherapists work to enhance movement abilities that may be impaired due to brain injury. This includes strengthening exercises and functional activities to improve muscle strength and coordination (Ozga et al., 2018).
Enhancing balance and coordination: Balance training helps to address difficulties with stability and coordination often seen in brain injury patients. Techniques include exercises that challenge balance and promote controlled movement (Adams & Victor, 2009).
Managing spasticity: Spasticity, or muscle stiffness, can be a common issue after brain injury. Physiotherapists use various techniques such as stretching and manual therapy to manage and reduce spasticity (Chesnut, R.M. 2007).
Specific techniques and exercises
Gait training: Focuses on improving walking patterns and mobility. This may involve treadmill training, gait analysis, and exercises designed to correct walking deficits (McCrory et al., 2017).
Constraint-induced movement therapy: Encourages the use of the affected limb by constraining the unaffected limb. This therapy helps improve motor function and promotes neuroplasticity (Ozga et al., 2018).
Vestibular rehabilitation: Targets balance and dizziness issues through exercises that stimulate the vestibular system, helping patients regain stability and spatial awareness (Adams & Victor, 2009).
Neuromuscular re-education: Includes exercises and techniques to retrain the brain and nerves to work together effectively, improving muscle control and coordination (Chesnut, R.M. 2007).
Goals of physiotherapy for brain injury patients
Restoring functional independence: Physiotherapy aims to help patients regain the ability to perform daily activities independently (McCrory et al., 2017).
Preventing secondary complications: By addressing issues such as muscle atrophy, joint contractures, and respiratory problems, physiotherapy helps prevent complications that can arise from prolonged immobility (Ozga et al., 2018).
Adapting to long-Term impairments: Assists patients in adapting to any lasting impairments, providing strategies and support to manage long-term changes (Adams & Victor, 2009).
Integration with other therapies
Multidisciplinary approach: Physiotherapy is most effective when integrated with other therapies. A team approach often includes occupational and speech therapies to address all aspects of recovery (Chesnut, R.M. 2007).
Coordination with occupational and speech therapies: Collaboration ensures a comprehensive treatment plan that addresses physical, cognitive, and communicative needs (McCrory et al., 2017).
Living with brain injury
Long-term effects and challenges
Chronic pain management: Brain injury can lead to persistent pain, requiring ongoing management strategies including medication, physical therapy, and alternative therapies (Adams & Victor, 2009).
Cognitive and behavioral changes: Patients may experience changes in memory, attention, and behavior, impacting daily life and relationships (Ozga et al., 2018).
Impact on relationships and work: Brain injuries can affect personal relationships and work performance, necessitating adjustments and support (Chesnut, R.M. 2007).
Coping strategies for patients and caregivers
Stress management techniques: Techniques such as relaxation exercises, mindfulness, and counseling can help manage stress associated with brain injury (McCrory et al., 2017).
Importance of routine and structure: Establishing a consistent daily routine can help provide stability and predictability for both patients and caregivers (Ozga et al., 2018).
Adaptive technologies and home modifications: Use of assistive devices and modifications to the living environment can improve safety and independence (Adams & Victor, 2009).
Support resources and organizations
Support groups: Offer emotional support and practical advice for individuals and families affected by brain injury (Bullock et al., 2002).
Brain injury associations: Provide resources, advocacy, and information on brain injury (CDC, 2021).
Caregiver resources: Support for caregivers includes training, respite care, and counseling (McCrory et al., 2017).
Conclusion
In summary, brain injury rehabilitation, particularly through physiotherapy, is essential for improving motor function, balance, and overall quality of life. Early intervention and a comprehensive approach to care, including physiotherapy, are crucial for optimal recovery. Seeking professional help and engaging in a multidisciplinary treatment plan can significantly enhance outcomes and support adaptation to life after brain injury. Emphasizing a positive outlook and the potential for recovery can motivate patients and caregivers to pursue effective rehabilitation strategies.
References:
Adams, R. D., & Victor, M. (2009). Principles of Neurology (10th ed.). McGraw-Hill.
Chesnut, R. M. (2007). Care of central nervous system injuries. Surgical Clinics, 87(1), 119-156.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2021). Traumatic Brain Injury & Concussion. Retrieved from CDC website
Ozga, J. E., Povroznik, J. M., Engler-Chiurazzi, E. B., & Haar, C. V. (2018). Executive (dys) function after traumatic brain injury: special considerations for behavioral pharmacology. Behavioural pharmacology, 29(7), 617-637.
GOS (Glasgow Outcome Scale). (2004). The Glasgow Outcome Scale. Retrieved from GOS website
Kraus, J. F., & McArthur, D. L. (2008). Epidemiology of brain injury. In Brain Injury: A Comprehensive Approach (pp. 17-34). Springer.
Maas, A. I., Stocchetti, N., & Bullock, R. (2017). Moderate and severe traumatic brain injury in adults. The Lancet Neurology, 6(6), 418-426.
McCrory, P., Meeuwisse, W. H., Aubry, M., & Cantu, R. (2017). Consensus statement on concussion in sport—The 5th International Conference on Concussion in Sport held in Berlin, October 2016. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 51(11), 837-847.
Article by
John Keller
Clinical Director | Sports & Musculoskeletal Physiotherapist
John graduated as a Physiotherapist from the Auckland University of Technology with the John Morris memorial prize for outstanding clinical practise in 2003. John has since completed Post Graduate Diplomas in both Sports Medicine and Musculoskeletal Physiotherapy with distinction, also collecting the Searle Shield for excellence in Musculoskeletal Physiotherapy.
Reviewed by
Dr. Jenny Hynes FACP
Clinical Director | Specialist Musculoskeletal Physiotherapist
Jenny sat extensive examinations to be inducted as a fellow into the Australian College of Physiotherapy in 2009 and gain the title of Specialist Musculoskeletal Physiotherapist, one of only a few physiotherapists in the state to have done so.